Neotibicen winnemanna (Eastern Scissor-grinder Cicada)

Taxonomy & Identification

• Family: Cicadidae

• Genus: Neotibicen

• Species: N. winnemanna (described by Davis, 1912).

• Common name: Eastern Scissor-grinder Cicada.

• Appearance: A large annual cicada, about 30–50 mm long. Body dark brown to black with green and tan markings. Wings are transparent with greenish venation.

• Song: A long, mechanical “grinding” call, often lasting many seconds, with a crescendo–decrescendo pattern, reminiscent of a hand-cranked grinder (hence the name).

Distribution & Habitat

• Range: Primarily the southeastern and mid-Atlantic U.S., from the Carolinas through Tennessee and Virginia, extending into parts of the Midwest. Its core range lies south of Chicago.

• Chicago region: This cicada is not typical of northern Illinois, where other Neotibicen species are more common (e.g., N. linnei – Linne’s Cicada; N. canicularis – Dog-day Cicada; N. lyricen – Lyric Cicada). If present near Chicago, N. winnemanna would likely occur only at the southern edge of Lake Michigan due to climate shifts or expanding ranges.

Lifecycle

Like other Neotibicen cicadas, it follows the “annual cicada” pattern (not synchronized like periodical cicadas, Magicicada):

1. Eggs

   • Laid in slits on twigs and small branches of woody plants.

2. Nymphs

   • After hatching, nymphs drop to the ground and burrow.

   • Feed underground for 2–5 years on xylem sap of tree and shrub roots.

   • Growth is gradual, and different cohorts emerge every summer, giving the appearance of annual generations.

3. Emergence

   • Mature nymphs emerge at night in mid- to late summer.

   • Climb up tree trunks or vertical surfaces, molt, and leave behind the familiar exuviae (shed skins).

4. Adults

   • Active in late July through September.

   • Males sing to attract mates; females respond with wing flicks.

   • Adults feed sparingly on plant sap and live only a few weeks.

Ecological Role

• Nutrient cycling: Nymphs extract xylem sap underground; their emergence in large numbers deposits biomass (molted skins, dead adults) back into the soil, enriching it with nitrogen.

• Soil aeration: Burrowing nymphs improve soil structure and water infiltration.

• Food source:

  • Nymphs and adults are eaten by birds, squirrels, bats, raccoons, foxes, fish, amphibians, and predatory insects (e.g., cicada killer wasps, Sphecius speciosus).

  • Exuviae and carcasses provide food for detritivores and decomposers.

• Pollinator support (indirect): By pruning twigs through egg-laying scars, they stimulate new growth and canopy dynamics, indirectly influencing forest succession.

Host Plants

Cicadas are not picky eaters—nymphs feed on the roots of many trees and shrubs, and adults feed on sap from twigs. Documented preferred hosts include:

• Oaks (Quercus spp.) – white oak, red oak, bur oak.

• Hickories (Carya spp.) – shagbark, bitternut.

• Maples (Acer spp.) – sugar maple, red maple, silver maple.

• Elms (Ulmus spp.) – American elm, slippery elm.

• Willows (Salix spp.)

• Walnuts (Juglans spp.)

• Other hardwoods: Basswood (Tilia americana), ash (Fraxinus spp.), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis).

In Chicago, planting and sustaining a diverse canopy of native hardwoods is the best way to support local Neotibicen species (including winnemanna if its range expands northward).

How to Support Cicadas in Chicago

1. Plant Native Trees

   • Top choices: White oak (Q. alba), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), shagbark hickory (C. ovata), sugar maple (A. saccharum), hackberry (C. occidentalis).

   • Choose a mix of canopy and understory trees to mimic natural woodland diversity.

2. Tree Care

   • Avoid heavy pesticide use—cicadas are vulnerable during both underground and adult stages.

   • Allow natural leaf litter and mulch to remain; this protects soil moisture and provides nymph habitat.

3. Habitat Practices

   • Preserve older, mature trees—these provide the deep root systems needed for multi-year cicada development.

   • Maintain green corridors (urban woodlots, parkways) to sustain healthy populations.

Conservation Notes

• Neotibicen cicadas are generally secure and not threatened.

• Climate change and urbanization may gradually shift ranges, potentially allowing southern species like N. winnemanna to expand farther into Illinois over time.

Halysidota harrisii (Harris’s Tussock Moth)

Taxonomy & Identification

• Family: Erebidae (Tiger & Tussock moths; formerly Arctiidae).

• Common name: Harris’s Tussock Moth.

• Appearance (adult): A medium-sized, pale moth with light gray or tan wings, sometimes with faint darker spotting or banding. Forewings are generally unmarked compared to its close relatives (Halysidota tessellaris and Halysidota cinctipes).

• Caterpillar: Covered in tufts (“tussocks”) of yellow, white, and black hairs. Caterpillars resemble those of other Halysidota species and can be difficult to distinguish without close inspection.

Distribution

• Native to eastern North America. Range extends from the Great Lakes (including Illinois/Chicago area) through the Northeast and into parts of the Southeast.

• Locally present but not nearly as abundant as the better-known White-marked Tussock Moth or other Halysidota species.

Lifecycle

1. Eggs:

   • Laid in clusters on the undersides of host plant leaves.

   • Overwintering usually occurs in the egg stage.

2. Larvae (Caterpillars):

   • Emerge in late spring or early summer.

   • Feed gregariously at first, then disperse.

   • Caterpillars are hairy, which deters predators and can cause mild skin irritation if handled.

3. Pupae:

   • Formed in loose cocoons made of silk and caterpillar hairs, often in leaf litter or sheltered bark crevices.

4. Adults (Moths):

   • Emerge in midsummer.

   • Nocturnal, attracted to lights.

   • Do not feed; their role is strictly reproduction.

• Generations: Usually one generation per year in northern climates like Chicago.

Ecological Role

• Herbivory: Caterpillars feed on the leaves of various deciduous trees, contributing to natural pruning and nutrient cycling.

• Food web contribution:

  • Caterpillars serve as prey for birds (particularly cuckoos, which are adapted to eating hairy caterpillars), predatory wasps, and tachinid flies.

  • Adults serve as prey for bats and night-flying insectivorous birds.

• Hair defenses: Caterpillars’ hairs provide protection, but also serve as food sources for specialized predators and parasitoids.

Host Plants

Halysidota harrisii larvae feed on a variety of hardwoods. Documented host plants include:

• Hickories (Carya spp.)

• Walnut (Juglans nigra)

• Oaks (Quercus spp.)

• Willows (Salix spp.)

• Birches (Betula spp.)

• Elm (Ulmus spp.)

These are all native to Illinois/Chicago region and excellent for supporting this moth.

Supporting Halysidota harrisii in Chicago

1. Planting Host Trees

• Oaks (Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. macrocarpa): Keystone trees that support hundreds of Lepidoptera species, including this moth.

• Hickories (Carya ovata – Shagbark Hickory): Very high-value host.

• Black Walnut (Juglans nigra): Excellent host, though large and best suited for spacious yards or parks.

• River Birch (Betula nigra): A smaller tree, good for urban/suburban planting.

• Willows (Salix nigra, S. discolor): Shrubbier willows work well in wetter spots.

• American Elm (Ulmus americana): Still valuable despite past Dutch Elm Disease losses; disease-resistant cultivars available.

2. Cultivation Tips

• Site: Choose sunny to part-shade spots depending on the species. Most thrive in well-drained soils; willows prefer moist sites.

• Soil: Oaks, hickories, and walnuts prefer slightly acidic to neutral loam; birches like moist but well-drained soil.

• Water: Provide supplemental watering the first 2–3 years until established.

• Diversity: Planting multiple tree species increases resilience and supports a broader moth and insect community.

3. Maintenance Practices

• Avoid broad-spectrum pesticides, which can decimate caterpillar populations.

• Leave leaf litter and fallen branches in at least part of your yard—important pupation habitat.

• Consider “soft edges” (native shrubs and understory plants beneath trees) to provide microhabitats and shelter.

Astur cooperii (Cooper’s Hawk)

Taxonomy & Identification

• Scientific name: Astur cooperii (formerly Accipiter cooperii).

• Family: Accipitridae (hawks, eagles, kites).

• Appearance: Medium-sized raptor, 35–50 cm in length, with short rounded wings and a long, banded tail. Adults have bluish-gray upperparts and reddish-barred underparts; juveniles are brown with streaked underparts.

• Sexual dimorphism: Females are larger than males (typical of raptors).

Distribution & Habitat

• Range: Native to North America, breeding across southern Canada, throughout the continental U.S., and into northern Mexico.

• Habitat: Prefers woodlands, forest edges, riparian zones, and increasingly suburban/urban areas with mature trees.

• Nesting: Builds large stick nests high in deciduous or coniferous trees, often reusing old nests.

Diet & Hunting

• Primary diet: Medium-sized birds (doves, pigeons, starlings, jays, robins, sparrows).

• Secondary prey: Small mammals (squirrels, chipmunks, mice), and occasionally reptiles and insects.

• Hunting style: Ambush predator; uses cover and agility to weave through trees, surprising prey with rapid, short-burst chases.

• Urban adaptation: In cities, diets shift toward abundant prey around bird feeders (e.g., Mourning Doves, Rock Pigeons, House Sparrows).

Life History

• Breeding season: Late spring through summer.

• Clutch size: 2–5 eggs, incubated mainly by the female.

• Fledging: Young leave the nest at about 4–5 weeks, dependent on parents for another month.

• Longevity: Many fall victim to window strikes and vehicle collisions in urban areas, though individuals can live over 10 years in the wild.

Ecological Role

1. Predator–Prey Dynamics

• Population control: Plays a key role in regulating populations of medium-sized birds. This helps prevent ecological imbalances, especially in areas where prey species (like pigeons or starlings) can become overly abundant.

• Influence on prey behavior: Creates a “landscape of fear” that alters the foraging and flocking patterns of songbirds. Birds at feeders, for instance, will often adjust vigilance and feeding times in response to hawk presence.

2. Disease Ecology

• Cooper’s Hawks frequently prey on doves and pigeons, which are carriers of Trichomonas gallinae, a protozoan parasite. This link creates a strong predator–prey–pathogen relationship:

  • Infected prey can transmit disease to hawk nestlings through regurgitated food.

  • Outbreaks of trichomoniasis have caused significant nestling mortality in some urban populations.

• This makes Astur cooperii an important species for studying how predators, prey, and pathogens interact in city ecosystems.

3. Urban Ecology

• Adaptability: Once considered shy woodland hawks, they now thrive in urban and suburban landscapes. Cities like Chicago, Tucson, and New York have stable and growing populations.

• Synanthropy: Their success is tied to human activities such as bird feeding, which concentrates prey, and urban tree planting, which provides nesting sites.

• Behavioral innovation: Studies have documented hawks timing hunts with human movement (e.g., using traffic or pedestrians as cover), showing high cognitive flexibility.

4. Role in Food Webs

• As predator: Controls prey populations, maintaining balance in avian communities.

• As prey: Nestlings and eggs are vulnerable to raccoons, crows, and snakes; adults may be taken by larger raptors such as Great Horned Owls.

• As host: Serves as a host for parasites (lice, tapeworms, helminths), supporting broader parasite and scavenger networks.

Conservation Status

• IUCN Red List: Least Concern, with increasing population trends.

• Historical context: Populations declined during the mid-20th century due to DDT and persecution but rebounded after pesticide bans and legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

• Present threats: Collisions (windows, cars), secondary poisoning from rodenticides, and disease outbreaks in urban settings.

Human Coexistence & Stewardship

• Bird feeding: Regular cleaning of feeders can help limit disease transmission among prey species, which in turn supports hawk health.

• Window safety: Installing strike deterrents (UV decals, screens, patterned glass) reduces accidental hawk and songbird deaths.

• Rodenticides: Avoidance of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides prevents secondary poisoning.

• Urban biodiversity: Planting native trees and maintaining green corridors provide nesting habitat and sustain prey diversity.

Photinus pyralis (Common Eastern Firefly / Big Dipper Firefly)

Overview

Photinus pyralis is the most familiar firefly in the U.S., famous for the “J-shaped” flight pattern of its flashing males at dusk in summer. It belongs to the family Lampyridae. Chicagoans see it most often in July evenings in fields, gardens, and edges.

Although beloved for its light displays, its ecological role goes deeper: the larvae are important nocturnal predators in soil and leaf litter ecosystems.

Ecological Role

• Larval predator: Firefly larvae (sometimes called “glowworms”) live in moist soil, duff, or under logs. They feed on soft-bodied invertebrates—snails, slugs, earthworms, insect larvae—using digestive enzymes injected through hollow mandibles. This helps regulate decomposer populations and nutrient cycling.

• Prey: Fireflies themselves are prey for spiders, birds, and other insects. Interestingly, most fireflies produce defensive chemicals called lucibufagins that make them distasteful, though predators like Photuris fireflies (“femme fatales”) consume them to steal those toxins.

• Pollinator connection: Adults generally do not feed much (some take nectar or pollen, but many live off fat reserves). The species depends less on flowers and more on healthy soil and moisture conditions to support larvae.

Life Cycle (Upper Midwest / Chicago Timing)

1. Eggs (mid-summer): Females deposit eggs in moist soil or leaf litter after mating.

2. Larvae (summer–spring of following years): Larvae live 1–2 years in soil, glowing faintly at night. They are active predators, mostly nocturnal.

3. Pupation (late spring): After overwintering in soil, larvae pupate for several weeks.

4. Adults (early–mid summer): Adults emerge in June–July. Males fly at dusk flashing a signature “J-shaped” light; females sit on vegetation and flash in response. Adults live only a few weeks—long enough to mate and lay eggs.

Supporting Photinus pyralis in Chicago

1. Habitat needs

• Moist, undisturbed soil: Critical for eggs and larvae. Avoid frequent tilling, mowing to the ground, or compacted turf.

• Leaf litter & fallen logs: Provides shelter and prey for larvae. Raking away all leaves in fall removes habitat.

• Darkness: Artificial night lighting disrupts firefly courtship flashes; reducing yard lights is one of the biggest supports.

• Water features: Wet meadows, rain gardens, ponds, or simply damp areas help sustain firefly larvae and prey.

2. Native plants to support prey & habitat structure

While fireflies don’t rely on nectar plants, native vegetation supports the food web that larvae prey upon (snails, slugs, worms, small insects). Key plant types are those that:

• Hold moisture in soil (dense groundcovers, prairie forbs, sedges).

• Provide leaf litter & duff (perennials, shrubs, trees).

• Attract soft-bodied insects (shade-loving natives, plants near damp soils).

Recommended Chicago-region natives:

• Sedges (Carex spp.) – Moisture-retaining groundcover, provides leaf litter and invertebrate habitat.

• Prairie grasses (e.g., Sporobolus heterolepis [prairie dropseed], Schizachyrium scoparium [little bluestem]) – Dense clumps protect soil moisture and shelter prey species.

• Golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) – Early-season flowers for insect prey attraction.

• Monarda fistulosa (Wild Bergamot) & Pycnanthemum spp. (Mountain Mints) – Support diverse insects, indirectly feeding larval prey base.

• Native shrubs/trees (e.g., Cornus racemosa [gray dogwood], Quercus macrocarpa [bur oak]) – Provide shade, leaf litter, and microhabitats for moisture retention.

3. How to grow them

• Sedges: Plant plugs in spring; tolerate part shade and moist soils; spread slowly by rhizome.

• Prairie grasses: Sow seed mixes in fall (require cold stratification) or plant plugs; full sun, medium soils; low maintenance once established.

• Forbs (Zizia, Monarda, Pycnanthemum): Start from stratified seed or nursery plugs; full to part sun; medium soils. Cut back only in spring to preserve litter through winter.

• Shrubs/trees: Plant container or bare-root stock in spring/fall; avoid over-irrigation once established.

Summary

• Ecological role: Larval predator of soil invertebrates; adults mostly for reproduction.

• Life cycle: Eggs → predatory larvae (1–2 yrs in soil) → pupae in spring → adults in June–July evenings.

• To support in Chicago: Maintain moist, litter-rich soils, reduce artificial lighting, avoid pesticides, and provide native vegetation that shelters prey and retains soil moisture. Sedges, prairie grasses, mints, Monarda, golden Alexanders, and native shrubs/trees all help.

  Firefly-Friendly Yard Plan (Chicago)

  Guiding Principles

  1. Moist, undisturbed soil → key for eggs & larvae.

  2. Leaf litter & duff layers → don’t rake everything away.

  3. Darkness → reduce outdoor lighting, especially in June–July evenings.

  4. Native plant diversity → supports soil invertebrates and insect prey.

  5. Structure layers → combine trees, shrubs, grasses, and perennials for microhabitats.

  Layout Zones

  🌳 Canopy/Tree Layer (Shade & Leaf Litter)

  • Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) (front or corner of lot, long-lived, keystone species).

  • Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) or Gray Dogwood (Cornus racemosa) for smaller yards.

  Why: Provides shade (retains soil moisture), abundant leaf litter, and insect habitat.

  Growing tips: Plant in spring/fall; mulch lightly at base with organic matter; avoid chemical fertilizers.

  🌿 Shrub & Edge Layer

  • American Hazelnut (Corylus americana) – Dense thicket, leaf litter, nuts for wildlife.

  • Gray Dogwood (Cornus racemosa) – White flowers (insect resource), persistent berries (bird food).

  Why: Creates shaded, humid microhabitats where larvae thrive in duff.

  Growing tips: Space 6–10 ft apart; tolerate sun–part shade; minimal pruning.

  🍃 Ground Layer (Moisture & Prey Support)

  • Sedges (Carex pensylvanica, C. vulpinoidea) – Groundcover that retains soil moisture.

  • Prairie Dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis) – Dense clumps; protects soil.

  • Little Bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) – Adds structure and cover.

  Why: Dense grasses/sedges create humid ground-level habitat for snails, slugs, and worms (firefly prey).

  Growing tips: Plant plugs for faster establishment; full sun to part shade; cut back in spring only.

  🌸 Forb/Pollinator Layer (Insect Prey Attraction)

  • Golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) – Early bloom, draws flies and beetles.

  • Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) – Mid-summer nectar, attracts moths.

  • Mountain Mint (Pycnanthemum muticum) – Top insect magnet.

  • Stiff Goldenrod (Solidago rigida) + New England Aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae) – Late summer/fall bloom.

  Why: These attract insects (moths, flies, beetles) that sustain the soil/duff food web and enhance biodiversity.

  Growing tips: Sow seed in fall (cold stratification) or buy plugs; group in clusters for impact; cut stems only in spring.

  💧 Moisture Feature (Optional)

  • Rain garden or wet corner with sedges (Carex stricta, Carex vulpinoidea) and swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata).

  Why: Firefly larvae thrive in damp soils; also supports frogs, toads, and snails (prey base).

  Growing tips: Place in low spot; use deep-rooted natives; tolerate seasonal flooding.

  Seasonal Firefly Calendar (Chicago)

  • April–May: Larvae active in soil; keep leaf litter.

  • June–July evenings: Adults flashing; keep yard dark.

  • July–August: Females lay eggs in damp soil/duff.

  • Fall: Do not rake all leaves — leave some natural mulch for eggs and larvae.

  • Winter: Eggs/larvae overwinter in soil; avoid heavy soil disturbance.

  Extra Firefly-Friendly Practices

  • 🚫 No pesticides or lawn chemicals.

  • 💡 Limit night lights. Use motion sensors or amber bulbs if security lighting is needed.

  • 🍂 Leave the leaves. Keep at least part of your yard natural through winter.

  • 🪵 Add logs/brush piles. Great larval shelters and prey habitat.

  ✅ With this plan, you’ll have a layered, prairie–savanna style habitat that provides:

  • Shade + duff (trees/shrubs),

  • Moist ground + prey (sedges/grasses),

  • Insect diversity (forbs),

  • Darkness + water (habitat essentials).

Neoscona crucifera (Spotted Orbweaver)

Overview

Neoscona crucifera (spotted orbweaver) is a large, colorful orb-weaving spider common throughout eastern and central North America, including the Chicago region. It is a member of the family Araneidae (orbweavers), known for constructing large, intricate circular webs. These spiders are nocturnal hunters and play a significant role in insect population control.

Unlike bees or butterflies, they do not rely on specific host plants, but their survival is tightly linked to habitat structure (places to anchor webs) and abundant insect prey.

Ecological Role

• Predators of insects. Orbweavers are sit-and-wait predators, capturing moths, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, and even agricultural pests. They help regulate insect populations in gardens and natural areas.

• Food for others. They are prey for birds (esp. insectivorous songbirds), wasps (e.g., spider wasps), and small mammals. Their egg sacs are also eaten by predators.

• Biodiversity support. By consuming large numbers of insects, they indirectly support plant health, reducing herbivore pressure.

In short: N. crucifera is a keystone arthropod predator in Chicago ecosystems.

Life Cycle

• Spring: Spiderlings hatch from egg sacs that overwinter in protected places (leaf litter, bark crevices, or tucked into man-made structures).

• Summer: Juveniles disperse by “ballooning” on silk threads, then build progressively larger webs.

• Late summer–fall: Adults are most visible (August–October). They construct large, symmetrical orb webs at dusk, usually in open spaces among vegetation, returning to hide during the day.

• Mating: Males roam in late summer seeking females. Females produce large egg sacs attached to vegetation or sheltered structures.

• Winter: Adults die with frost; the next generation overwinters in egg sacs.

Note: Their seasonal appearance explains why you see them most in autumn, glowing orange-brown in porchlights or garden shrubs.

Supporting Neoscona crucifera in Chicago

Unlike pollinators, orbweavers don’t need host plants for food. Instead, they need:

1. Habitat structure

• Vertical vegetation & branching plants where webs can be suspended across open air.

• Tall forbs and grasses to provide anchoring points.

• Edge habitats (garden–lawn borders, woodland edges, fences, shrubs).

2. Abundant insect prey

Since they feed on flying insects, planting native species that attract moths, flies, and beetles will indirectly support them. Night-blooming or nectar-rich plants are especially useful because many of their prey are nocturnal.

Best Native Plants to Attract Prey for Orbweavers in Chicago

Early season

• Wild Geranium (Geranium maculatum) – Attracts small flies, beetles, and bees.

• Golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) – Umbel flowers that draw diverse small insects.

Summer

• Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) – Attracts moths, beetles, and flies; hosts milkweed beetles and moth larvae that feed nearby.

• Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) – Lamiaceae nectar source; heavy insect visitation, especially moths and bees.

• Mountain Mints (Pycnanthemum muticum, P. tenuifolium) – Among the top insect-attracting plants; supports diverse flies, wasps, and beetles.

Late season

• Goldenrods (Solidago speciosa, S. rigida) – Key late nectar source, draws swarms of flies, beetles, and wasps.

• Asters (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae, S. oblongifolium) – Bloom late into fall, attracting moths and other flying insects.

How to Grow These Plants in Chicago

• General strategy: Choose sunny prairie perennials and plant in clumps to attract prey insects. Use a mix of spring, summer, and fall bloomers.

• Soils: Most of these natives prefer medium to dry, well-drained soils typical of Chicago prairies.

• Establishment: Many require cold-moist stratification of seeds (sow in fall or stratify indoors for 60–90 days). Easier option: start from plugs via local native plant nurseries.

• Maintenance: Minimal fertilizer; cut stems back only in spring to preserve overwintering insect eggs/pupae (which later feed spiders). Avoid pesticides.

Summary

• Ecological role: Neoscona crucifera is a nocturnal orbweaver that controls insect populations and provides food for higher trophic levels.

• Life cycle: Overwinters in egg sacs → spiderlings in spring → juveniles in summer → adults in late summer–fall → egg sacs for next generation.

• Support in Chicago: Provide habitat structure (shrubs, tall forbs, fences) and plant insect-attracting natives (milkweed, monarda, mountain mint, goldenrods, asters). These plants supply prey, not nectar for the spiders themselves.

• Gardening tip: Think prairie edges and layered plantings—a mix of grasses, forbs, and shrubs will maximize prey diversity and web-building spots.

Physocephala tibialis (Thick-headed Fly)

Overview

Physocephala tibialis is a species of thick-headed fly in the family Conopidae. These flies are best known as endoparasitoids of bumble bees (genus Bombus), but they also visit flowers for nectar. Despite their parasitic nature, they are ecologically significant in shaping bee populations and maintaining balances within pollinator communities.

Ecological Role

• Parasitoid of bumble bees. Female P. tibialis intercepts a foraging bumble bee mid-flight or on flowers, curls her abdomen under the bee’s body, and forcibly inserts an egg into the bee’s abdomen. The larva develops inside, ultimately killing the host.

• Pollinator service. Adults feed on nectar and act as pollinators themselves, often visiting open, nectar-rich flowers such as composites (Asteraceae) and mints (Lamiaceae).

• Population regulation. By parasitizing bumble bees, they help regulate bee populations, preventing dominance of a few species and potentially contributing to pollinator community diversity.

Life Cycle

1. Adult emergence (summer): Adults emerge in warm months (June–September in the Midwest). They are slender, wasp-like, with a distinctive "thick head" and often hover near flowers.

2. Mating and oviposition: Females seek bumble bees; eggs are injected directly into the abdomen of the host.

3. Larval development: Inside the bee, the larva consumes hemolymph and tissues. The parasitized bee may continue foraging for a while but eventually dies.

4. Pupal stage: After the host dies, the larva pupates within the bee’s body or in soil.

5. Overwintering: Likely occurs in the pupal stage; adults emerge the following summer.

Supporting P. tibialis in Chicago

Because this species depends on both flowers for nectar and bumble bees as hosts, supporting it requires a two-layered approach:

1. Nectar sources for adults

P. tibialis visits many of the same nectar plants as bumble bees. The best support comes from long-blooming, nectar-rich, open flowers:

• Mountain mints (Pycnanthemum muticum, P. tenuifolium) – Mid to late summer bloom, swarms with pollinators.

• Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) – Lamiaceae; excellent for both bees and flies.

• Goldenrods (Solidago speciosa, S. rigida) – Critical late-season nectar.

• Asters (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae, S. oblongifolium) – Fall bloom, major nectar draw.

• Milkweeds (Asclepias syriaca, A. tuberosa) – Early to mid-summer nectar.

These species are all native to the Chicago region and thrive in prairie-style plantings.

2. Host availability (bumble bees)

To sustain P. tibialis, you must also support healthy populations of bumble bees—their required hosts. This means:

• Planting diverse, staggered-bloom natives from spring to fall (e.g., willows in spring, coneflowers mid-summer, asters/goldenrods in fall).

• Avoiding pesticides that harm bees or their nests.

• Providing nesting habitat (undisturbed ground, tussock grasses, and rodent burrows).

How to Grow These Native Plants in Chicago

Here are practical notes for establishing a supportive habitat:

• Mountain Mint (Pycnanthemum muticum): Full sun to part sun, medium soils. Spreads by rhizome—best in dedicated pollinator beds. Plant plugs or sow stratified seed outdoors in fall.

• Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa): Full sun, medium–dry soils. Easy from seed (cold-moist stratification) or nursery plugs. Can spread by rhizome.

• Goldenrods (Solidago speciosa, S. rigida): Full sun, dry–medium soils. Less aggressive than S. canadensis. Start from seed (cold stratify) or plugs.

• Asters (Symphyotrichum spp.): Full sun, medium soils. Sow in fall or plant plugs; pinch back in June for bushier form.

• Milkweeds (Asclepias spp.): Full sun, well-drained soils. Seeds need cold stratification; slow to establish but long-lived.

Summary

Physocephala tibialis plays a dual ecological role—as a nectar-feeding pollinator and as a regulator of bumble bee populations through parasitism. To support it in Chicago:

• Grow a diverse mix of nectar-rich native plants (mountain mints, bergamot, goldenrods, asters, milkweeds).

• Support strong bumble bee populations (its hosts) with season-long bloom and nesting habitat.

• Maintain pesticide-free, diverse gardens or prairie patches with bare/undisturbed soil nearby.

Halictus ligatus (Ligated Furrow Bee)

Quick ID & why it matters

Halictus ligatus is a very common North American “sweat bee” (family Halictidae). It nests in the ground, often thrives in cities, and is primitively eusocial—small colonies with a queen and workers. As a broad floral generalist, it pollinates many native prairie/woodland forbs and also urban garden plants.

Ecological role

• Generalist pollinator. Short-tongued and happy on small, open, composite blooms; studies repeatedly link H. ligatus with Asteraceae (yarrow, fleabane, asters, goldenrods). In field datasets, H. ligatus showed strong associations with yarrow and other composites, and it visited one of the widest ranges of flowers among bees tested.

• Urban resilience. It’s among the most frequently encountered native bees in cities (including Chicago), turning up on green roofs and urban prairies; research has even examined body-size variation of H. ligatus in Chicago/Detroit/St. Louis.

Life cycle (Upper Midwest / Chicago timing)

• Overwintering: Mated females (“gynes”) overwinter in soil. PMC

• Spring nest founding: Overwintered females emerge in late spring (around late May–early June at similar latitudes) and found nests—usually singly, sometimes with multiple foundresses.

• Worker phase: First brood produces workers that take over foraging and nest duties through summer.

• Reproductive phase: Late summer broods include new males and gynes; the original queen and workers die by season’s end, and the new gynes mate and enter diapause to overwinter.

Nest architecture & depth. Nests are simple vertical burrows in level, well-drained, sparsely vegetated soil; typical depths ~11–18 cm in spring to summer, sometimes deeper later. You’ll often see a little soil “tumulus” at the entrance.

Nesting habitat to provide

• Sunny, bare or lightly vegetated ground. Reserve 1–3+ m² of unmulched, well-drained soil (sandy/loamy works great). Slight south/east exposure and gentle slopes help keep soil warm and dry; warmer soils and nearby flowers are tied to higher nest densities. Scatter some small pebbles/rocks—H. ligatus is often found nesting near them. Avoid landscape fabric.

• No digging/tilling. Disturbance collapses burrows; hand-weed instead.

• Pesticide-free. Especially avoid systemic insecticides on bloom.

• Water management. Good drainage matters; don’t routinely irrigate the nest patch.

“Host plants” (for bees = nectar/pollen plants)

H. ligatus is polylectic (a generalist), but it shows a strong pull to Asteraceae and other small, accessible flowers. Below are Chicago-region natives that together cover the whole season. (Selections reflect families and species shown to attract H. ligatus and close congeners in studies or extension trials.)

Early season (April–June)

• Golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea, Apiaceae) — Early umbels for spring energy.
  How to grow: Sun–part sun; medium soils; 2–3’ tall; sow outdoors in fall or cold-moist stratify ~60 days; self-sows lightly.

• Wild Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana) — Low groundcover with open flowers.
  How to grow: Sun; medium–dry; spreads by runners; divide runners in late summer.

• Wild Geranium (Geranium maculatum) — Open, saucer-shaped blooms in part shade.
  How to grow: Part shade; medium soils; clump-forming; divide in fall.

• Willows (Salix spp.) — Superb catkin pollen very early (shrubby species fit yards).
  How to grow: Sun; moist to average; prune after bloom; avoid heavy lawn irrigation at base.

High summer (June–August)

• Clustered/Short-toothed Mountain Mint (Pycnanthemum muticum) — A documented pollinator magnet, drawing exceptionally high diversity and counts.
  How to grow: Sun–part sun; average soils; spreads by rhizomes (give 2–3’); divide every 3–4 yrs; deadhead optional.

• Hoary/Slender Mountain Mint (P. incanum / P. tenuifolium) — Airier habit for tighter spots.
  How to grow: Sun; average–dry; less aggressive than P. muticum.

• Yellow Coneflower (Ratibida pinnata, Asteraceae) — Open composite disk ideal for short-tongued bees.
  How to grow: Sun; medium–dry; 3–5’; stake in rich soils; fall-sow or cold-stratify.

• Heliopsis (Heliopsis helianthoides, Asteraceae) — Long bloom; easy nectar access.
  How to grow: Sun; average soils; pinch in June to reduce flop; divide clumps.

Late season (Aug–Oct): the critical “fat-up for winter” window

• Aromatic Aster (Symphyotrichum oblongifolium, Asteraceae) — Dense late nectar/pollen; compact habit good for gardens.
  How to grow: Full sun; dry–medium; shear ⅓ in late June to keep bushy; no rich fertilizer.

• New England Aster (S. novae-angliae) — Tall, very high value late forage.
  How to grow: Sun; medium; pinch in June; supports masses of late bees.

• Showy or Stiff Goldenrod (Solidago speciosa / S. rigida, Asteraceae) — Clumping, garden-friendly goldenrods (less aggressive than S. canadensis).
  How to grow: Sun; medium–dry; fall-sow seed or cold-stratify; leave stems overwinter.

• Common Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, Asteraceae) — H. ligatus shows strong associations with yarrow in datasets.
  How to grow: Sun; lean/dry soils best; spreads—consider edging.

Why these? Experimental and field studies repeatedly tie H. ligatus to Asteraceae (yarrow, fleabane, asters, goldenrods) and show it uses a large diversity of flowers; mountain mints are top performers for overall bee traffic and diversity. Together these give continuous bloom April–October in Chicagoland.

Garden setup & maintenance tips (Chicago-centric)

1. Continuous bloom: Aim for 10–15 species spanning spring → fall; ensure at least 3–4 strong late-season plants (asters/goldenrods/yarrow).

2. Structure: Cluster each species in drifts (1–1.5 m²) so bees can forage efficiently.

3. Stems & leaves: Leave spent stems (15–25 in) and leaf litter over winter; cut back in late spring.

4. Water & soil: Average, not overly rich soils; avoid frequent fertilizer—lush growth can flop and reduce bloom.

5. No neonics: Skip systemic insecticides; spot-treat weeds by hand.

6. Nesting patch: Keep a sunny, bare, well-drained 2×2 m (or as big as you can) soil area near the flowers; don’t mulch it. Add some pebbles/gravel; maintain year to year.

A few field notes

• What you’ll see: Small dark bees with pale abdominal hair bands; males slimmer with longer antennae. Expect them from late spring through fall, especially heavy on late asters/goldenrods and on mountain mints in midsummer.

• Behavior: They’re called “sweat bees” because salt attracts them; stings are uncommon and mild.

Atteva aurea (Ailanthus Webworm Moth)

Species Overview

• Scientific name: Atteva aurea

• Common name: Ailanthus Webworm Moth

• Family: Attevidae

• Native range: Originally native to southern Florida, the Caribbean, and Central/South America, where it feeds on native Simarouba species (Paradise Tree).

• Expanded range: Now found across much of North America, including the Chicago region, largely due to its adoption of Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) — a non-native, invasive tree introduced from Asia.

• Identification: Small day-flying moth (~1–1.5 cm body length) with vivid orange forewings patterned with white spots edged in black; when at rest, wings fold tightly over the body, making it look like a slender beetle.

Ecological Role

In Native Range

• Larval role: Herbivore of native Simarouba species; helps regulate foliage density, indirectly influencing canopy light and understory diversity.

• Adult role: Nectar feeder and prey species for birds, predatory insects, and spiders.

In Chicago Region

• Larval role: Feeds almost exclusively on the invasive Ailanthus altissima (Tree-of-heaven). This can slightly reduce Ailanthus vigor, but it’s not enough to control the invasive population.

• Adult role: Opportunistic nectar visitor, but not a significant native pollinator because it doesn’t have a close coevolutionary relationship with local flora.

• Food web: Provides food for insectivorous birds, predatory wasps, mantids, spiders, and predatory beetles.

Lifecycle (Chicago Area)

1. Egg Stage

   • Eggs laid on leaves or shoots of Ailanthus (or Simarouba in native range).

   • Hatch in a few days.

2. Larval Stage

   • Caterpillars feed gregariously, creating loose silk webbing over leaves and tying them together.

   • Feeding continues for ~2–3 weeks.

3. Pupal Stage

   • Pupation occurs inside the webbed leaves.

4. Adult Stage

   • Emerge as small, brightly colored moths.

   • Active during the day; often seen visiting flowers.

   • In Chicago, there are likely 2–3 generations between late spring and early fall, depending on temperature.

Host Plants

Larval Host Plants in Chicago

• Primary: Ailanthus altissima (Tree-of-heaven) — non-native, invasive.

• No known native Illinois plants are used as larval hosts here.

Adult Nectar Sources

• Adults feed from a variety of small-flowered species, including native goldenrods (Solidago spp.), asters (Symphyotrichum spp.), and milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), though they don’t require these to complete their life cycle.

Native Plant Support in Chicago

Because A. aurea is tied to an invasive host plant here, there are no native host plants you can grow to directly support its reproduction without also supporting Ailanthus altissima, which is ecologically harmful. For Chicago gardens, conservation planting should focus on native moths and butterflies with native host plant requirements.

If Managing as a Non-Native Species

Since A. aurea’s larval host is an invasive tree, management aligns with Tree-of-heaven removal and predator encouragement.

Predators to Encourage

• Insectivorous birds: Chickadees, nuthatches, warblers — supported by planting native trees/shrubs (Quercus, Prunus, Amelanchier).

• Predatory wasps: Paper wasps (Polistes spp.), potter wasps — supported by nectar-rich plants like mountain mints (Pycnanthemum), wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa), and Joe-Pye weed (Eutrochium purpureum).

• Spiders: Provide undisturbed vegetation and avoid pesticides.

• Predatory beetles: Ground beetles and lady beetles benefit from diverse plantings and leaf litter habitat.

Chicago Conservation Takeaway

• Don’t plant or encourage Tree-of-heaven — it’s invasive and also a key host for the destructive Spotted Lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula).

• If Ailanthus is present, removing it reduces both the moth’s breeding habitat and the spread of the invasive tree.

• Plant diverse native species to support native Lepidoptera and their predators, rather than A. aurea.

Bombus griseocollis (Brown-belted Bumble Bee)

Species Overview

• Scientific name: Bombus griseocollis

• Common name: Brown-belted Bumble Bee

• Family: Apidae

• Range: Widely distributed across most of the United States and southern Canada; common in the Midwest, including Chicago.

• Identification: Medium-sized bumble bee with a short to medium tongue. Queens and workers are mostly black with a yellow thoracic collar and a brownish or rust-colored band on the second abdominal segment. Males are more yellow with variable brown markings.

Ecological Role

Pollinator

• Generalist forager visiting a wide range of wildflowers and crops.

• Particularly important for buzz pollination (vibrating flowers to release pollen), benefiting plants like tomatoes, peppers, and native Solanum species.

• Highly effective at pollinating prairie plants, asters, goldenrods, and legumes.

Food web link

• Adults feed exclusively on nectar and pollen.

• Larvae rely on stored pollen provisions in the nest.

• Serve as prey for crab spiders, birds, and predatory insects; nests may be raided by skunks or other mammals.

Ecosystem indicator

• Though relatively adaptable, their abundance can reflect the quality of habitat and floral diversity in an area.

Lifecycle in Chicago

Annual colony cycle; active from April through October

1. Spring – Queen emergence

   • Mated queens overwinter in loose soil, leaf litter, or grassy tussocks.

   • In April–May, they emerge and search for a nesting site (often abandoned rodent burrows or grass clumps).

2. Nest establishment

   • Queen gathers nectar and pollen, forms a wax pot, lays initial eggs.

   • First brood emerges as workers, taking over foraging and nest maintenance.

3. Colony growth

   • Through summer, the colony can reach 50–200 workers.

   • Workers collect pollen/nectar from a broad array of plants.

4. Late summer – Reproduction

   • Queen lays eggs that develop into new queens and males.

   • Males leave the nest to mate with queens from other colonies.

5. Colony senescence and overwintering

   • By fall, the founding queen, workers, and males die.

   • Newly mated queens enter diapause in sheltered ground until the next spring.

Best Native Host Plants to Support B. griseocollis in Chicago

Because they are generalist foragers, providing continuous bloom from spring to fall is key.

Early Spring (April–May) – queen foraging

• Salix discolor (Pussy Willow)

• Amelanchier arborea (Serviceberry)

• Prunus americana (American Plum)

• Zizia aurea (Golden Alexander)

Summer (June–August) – peak worker activity

• Monarda fistulosa (Wild Bergamot)

• Echinacea purpurea (Purple Coneflower)

• Rudbeckia hirta (Black-eyed Susan)

• Pycnanthemum virginianum (Virginia Mountain Mint)

• Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly Weed)

• Dalea purpurea (Purple Prairie Clover)

• Ratibida pinnata (Yellow Coneflower)

Late Summer to Fall (August–October) – new queen provisioning

• Solidago rigida, S. speciosa, S. juncea (Stiff, Showy, and Early Goldenrods)

• Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (New England Aster)

• Symphyotrichum laeve (Smooth Blue Aster)

• Helianthus maximiliani (Maximilian Sunflower)

Habitat Support Tips

• Provide floral continuity: at least three native species blooming in each season.

• Preserve undisturbed soil, grassy tussocks, and leaf litter for overwintering queens.

• Avoid pesticides, especially neonicotinoids, which can harm both queens and workers.

• Leave some open, sunny, undisturbed ground for potential nest sites.

Papilio glaucus (Eastern Tiger Swallowtail)

Species Overview

• Scientific name: Papilio glaucus

• Common name: Eastern Tiger Swallowtail

• Family: Papilionidae

• Range: Widely distributed in the eastern United States and southern Canada, including the Chicago area.

• Identification: Large (3.5–5.5 inch wingspan) yellow butterfly with black tiger-like stripes; males have solid yellow hindwings with black borders, while females occur in both yellow and dark (mimic) morphs. Hindwings have characteristic "tails."

Ecological Role

Pollinator

• Adults feed on nectar from a broad range of flowering plants, visiting both native and ornamental species.

• Their large size and long proboscis allow them to pollinate deep or wide corollas that smaller butterflies cannot access.

Herbivore and host link

• Larvae feed on foliage of several tree and shrub species, many of which are ecologically important to other insects and birds.

• Caterpillars are part of the diet of birds, predatory insects, and parasitoid wasps.

Mimicry and predator interactions

• Female dark morph mimics the distasteful Battus philenor (Pipevine Swallowtail) to deter predators, illustrating a notable case of Batesian mimicry in the Midwest.

Lifecycle

(Two broods per year in Chicago; three farther south)

1. Egg stage

   • Laid singly on host plant leaves, often near the edge.

   • Pale green or yellow when fresh.

2. Larval stage

   • Early instars resemble bird droppings for camouflage.

   • Later instars are green with large false eye spots, deterring predators by mimicking a snake’s head.

   • Feeds primarily on host plant foliage.

3. Pupal stage

   • Chrysalis color varies (green in summer, brown in overwintering generation).

   • Second-generation pupae overwinter in diapause.

4. Adult stage

   • Emergence in late spring; peak adult flight in Chicago is May–June and again in July–August.

   • Adults live 6–14 days, feeding heavily on nectar.

Best Native Host Plants (Chicago Region)

Papilio glaucus larvae feed primarily on woody species in the Lauraceae, Rosaceae, Oleaceae, and Magnoliaceae families. In the Chicago region, the best native hosts include:

Primary Larval Hosts

• Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) – excellent for supporting large populations; best in larger yards or parks.

• Wild Black Cherry (Prunus serotina) – also supports many other Lepidoptera species.

• Black Willow (Salix nigra) – important near water edges.

• American Ash (Fraxinus americana, F. pennsylvanica) – still a host, but threatened by emerald ash borer; plant only if part of a monitored restoration.

• Basswood (Tilia americana)

Secondary Larval Hosts

• Eastern Cottonwood (Populus deltoides)

• Hop Tree (Ptelea trifoliata) – smaller tree/shrub option.

• Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) – native to parts of Illinois; aromatic leaves are a preferred host.

Best Native Nectar Plants for Adults

(Bloom periods matching adult flight times in Chicago)

• Spring–Early Summer: Phlox divaricata, Zizia aurea, Aquilegia canadensis

• Mid–Late Summer: Asclepias tuberosa, Monarda fistulosa, Eutrochium purpureum, Pycnanthemum virginianum, Solidago speciosa, Rudbeckia hirta, Vernonia fasciculata

• Late Summer–Fall: Symphyotrichum novae-angliae, Solidago rigida

Habitat Support Tips for Chicago

• Plant larval host trees near nectar-rich prairie perennials to provide both life stages with resources.

• Maintain pesticide-free landscapes to avoid harming larvae and nectar plants.

• If space is limited, choose smaller hosts like hop tree or sassafras rather than large canopy trees.

• Include early-blooming and late-blooming nectar sources to cover both broods.

Sphex pensylvanicus (Great Black Digger Wasp)

Species Overview

• Scientific name: Sphex pensylvanicus

• Common name: Great Black Wasp

• Family: Sphecidae (thread-waisted wasps)

• Native range: Widely distributed across North America, from southern Canada through most of the continental U.S., into northern Mexico. Common in the Midwest, including the Chicago region.

• Appearance: Large (up to 1.5 inches), completely black with iridescent blue highlights on wings and body; long, slender “thread-waist.”

Ecological Role

Predator of pest insects

• Adults hunt katydids, grasshoppers, and other Orthoptera — often species that can damage crops and garden plants.

• Paralyzes prey with a sting and brings it to an underground burrow as food for larvae.

• This makes them valuable natural biocontrol agents.

Pollinator

• Adults feed on nectar, making them important pollinators of many summer-blooming native wildflowers.

• While not specialized to one plant group, they are efficient cross-pollinators because of their large size and frequent foraging.

Ecosystem link

• Serves as prey for birds, spiders, and other predators, linking higher and lower trophic levels.

• By hunting herbivorous insects, they indirectly support plant health.

Lifecycle

1. Emergence:
   Adults typically emerge in mid-to-late summer (July–August in Chicago).
   Males emerge first, establish territories, and patrol for females.

2. Mating:
   Males guard sunny patches of vegetation and intercept females for mating.

3. Nesting:

   • Solitary (not colony-forming like yellowjackets).

   • Females dig burrows in sandy or loose soil, often in open, sunny spots.

   • Burrow may be up to 12 inches deep with several side chambers.

4. Hunting and provisioning:

   • Female hunts katydids/grasshoppers, stings to paralyze them, carries prey to burrow.

   • Places 1–3 prey items in each chamber with a single egg laid on the first prey.

5. Larval stage:

   • Egg hatches within ~3 days; larva feeds on the still-living prey.

   • Consumes all prey in its chamber, then spins a cocoon.

6. Overwintering:

   • Pupates inside the burrow and remains dormant over winter.

   • Emerges as an adult the following summer to repeat the cycle.

Best Native Host Plants to Support Sphex pensylvanicus (Chicago Region)

The Great Black Wasp needs nectar-rich mid-to-late summer blooms for adult feeding, plus loose, sunny soil for nesting.

Nectar Sources

(All native to the Chicago area; bloom July–September)

• Pycnanthemum virginianum (Virginia Mountain Mint) – highly attractive to wasps

• Pycnanthemum tenuifolium (Narrow-leaved Mountain Mint)

• Eutrochium purpureum (Sweet Joe-Pye Weed)

• Eutrochium maculatum (Spotted Joe-Pye Weed)

• Monarda fistulosa (Wild Bergamot)

• Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly Weed)

• Solidago spp. (Goldenrods, especially S. speciosa, S. rigida, S. juncea)

• Rudbeckia hirta (Black-eyed Susan)

• Vernonia fasciculata (Ironweed)

Habitat Support

• Nesting substrate: Areas of bare or sparsely vegetated sandy or loose loam soil in full sun are essential for nesting. Avoid heavy mulch or dense turf in these patches.

• Avoid pesticides: Even “bee-safe” sprays can harm hunting adults or developing larvae.

Key Notes for Chicago

• Activity period: Mid-July through late August is peak visibility.

• Often seen nectaring in prairie restorations, park gardens,

Sphex pensylvanicus – the great black wasp – is a large, solitary, thread-waisted wasp native across most of North America, including the Chicago region. Adults are up to 1.5 inches long, a glossy black with a blue-iridescent sheen, and are powerful fliers.

Ecological role

• Predator: Females hunt katydids, grasshoppers, and other orthopterans, sting to paralyze them, and drag them to their burrows. This helps control herbivorous insects that can damage vegetation.

• Pollinator: Adults feed on nectar from a wide variety of summer-blooming plants, moving pollen between flowers as they forage.

• Food web link: They themselves are preyed upon by birds, spiders, and other predators.

Lifecycle

1. Emergence – Adults appear mid- to late summer (July–August in Chicago).

2. Mating – Males patrol sunny areas and intercept females.

3. Nesting – Solitary females dig burrows in bare, sandy or loose soil in sunny, open spots. Each burrow has several side chambers.

4. Provisioning – Females capture and paralyze multiple katydids/grasshoppers per cell, lay an egg, and seal the chamber.

5. Larval stage – Egg hatches in a few days; larva feeds on still-living prey, then spins a cocoon.

6. Overwintering – Larvae pupate underground and overwinter, emerging as adults the following summer.

Supporting Sphex pensylvanicus in Chicago

• Provide nectar sources during their active period (July–September). Good native plants include:

  • Pycnanthemum virginianum (Virginia mountain mint)

  • Pycnanthemum tenuifolium (Narrow-leaf mountain mint)

  • Eutrochium purpureum and E. maculatum (Joe-Pye weeds)

  • Monarda fistulosa (Wild bergamot)

  • Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly milkweed)

  • Solidago rigida, S. speciosa, S. juncea (Goldenrods)

  • Vernonia fasciculata (Ironweed)

  • Rudbeckia hirta (Black-eyed Susan)

• Maintain small patches of bare, loose, sunny soil for nesting; avoid mulching every inch of ground.

• Eliminate or reduce pesticide use, especially broad-spectrum insecticides, which can harm both adults and prey populations.

With nectar plants for the adults, hunting habitat for prey, and nesting substrate, this striking wasp can thrive in Chicago gardens and serve as both a pollinator and a natural pest controller.

Allograpta obliqua (common oblique syrphid fly)

What it is

A small hover fly (6–8.5 mm) with yellow cross-bands on the abdomen and two oblique yellow marks near the tip. Adults hover and visit flowers; larvae are classic aphid hunters. Widely distributed across most of the continental U.S. and into Canada and the Neotropics.

Ecological role

• Larval predator: Eggs are laid right beside aphid colonies; larvae hunt aphids (and sometimes whiteflies, psyllids, mealybugs, mites, and even tiny caterpillars). In crops, heavy larval presence can cut aphid numbers dramatically (reported 70–100% reduction in some outbreaks).

• Adult pollinator: Adults feed on nectar and pollen and are frequent visitors to open, shallow flowers—helping pollinate a wide range of natives.

Lifecycle (quick)

Holometabolous: egg → 3 larval instars → puparium → adult. Eggs hatch in ~2–8 days; larvae feed 1–3 weeks; pupation occurs on plants or in litter/soil; adults emerge in ~1–2 weeks (unless the pupa overwinters). Multiple generations per season; adults present much of the growing season in the Midwest. Overwintering is species-dependent among syrphids but often as mature larvae or pupae in leaf litter/soil.

How to support it in a native garden (Chicago ecoregion)

Think in two tracks: (1) nectar/pollen for adults and (2) “prey base” plants that host aphids for the larvae.

1) Nectar & pollen—plant many shallow, long-blooming natives
Hover flies key in on umbels, daisies, and mints. Great, locally native picks that bloom in sequence:

• Spring–early summer: golden alexanders (Zizia aurea), heart-leaved alexanders (Zizia aptera), prairie parsley (Polytaenia nuttallii).

• Summer: mountain mints (Pycnanthemum virginianum, P. tenuifolium), wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa), purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea), black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta), Culver’s root (Veronicastrum virginicum).

• Late summer–fall (critical for multiple generations): asters (Symphyotrichum spp.), goldenrods (Solidago spp.), joe-pye weeds (Eutrochium spp.), blazingstars (Liatris spp.).

(Adults “visit a variety of flowers,” especially open-centred ones; syrphid biology guides consistently note umbels/Asteraceae/Lamiaceae as prime resources.)

2) Build an aphid prey base (yes, some aphids are okay!)
Larvae need aphid colonies nearby. Don’t panic-spray; let a manageable aphid load exist on tough natives. Reliable aphid-hosting natives include: milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), native willows (Salix spp.), dogwoods (Cornus spp.), native cherries/plums (Prunus spp.), maples (Acer spp.), and viburnums (Viburnum spp.)—all plants that commonly support aphids without long-term harm and in turn feed syrphid larvae. (Females place eggs on leaves near aphids; larvae then patrol and feed.)

3) Habitat & maintenance tips

• Leave leaf litter & some stems over winter so puparia/larvae can survive to spring.

• Avoid broad-spectrum insecticides (even “organic” options like spinosad can disrupt syrphid control in veg and pollinator plantings).

• Continuous bloom: stagger plantings so something is flowering from May–October to fuel multiple generations.

Seasonality (Upper Midwest snapshot)

Common from late spring through fall; farther south it can be present much of the year. Expect adults on flowers June–October around Chicago, with peaks tracking aphid booms on host plants and late-season composites.

Range

Across the lower 48 and southeastern Canada, extending south through Mexico, the West Indies, and into South America; abundant in the Midwest.

Design & Habitat Tips

• Plant in clusters (3–5 plants per species) to make blooms more visible to hover flies.

• Mix flower shapes (umbels, daisy-types, and minty spikes) for foraging diversity.

• Leave leaf litter & standing stems through winter for overwintering pupae.

• Avoid broad-spectrum pesticides; tolerate some aphid colonies.

• Sunny sites preferred for nectar plants; woody aphid hosts can be in sun or part shade.

Amphion floridensis (Nessus sphinx moth)

Photo: Hood Street, Summer 2025

Overview

• Common name: Nessus sphinx

• Family: Sphingidae (hawkmoths)

• Range: Widespread in eastern North America, from southern Canada through Florida and west to Texas and the Great Plains. Occasionally strays farther north and west.

• Appearance: A day-flying sphinx moth with two distinctive bright yellow abdominal bands and a narrow, streamlined body. Forewings are brown with faint patterns; hindwings have reddish-orange bases.

Ecological Role

1. Pollinator

   • Adults visit and pollinate a wide range of flowers, especially tubular blooms with nectar available in daytime.

   • Because they hover like hummingbirds, they can pollinate flowers that are less accessible to bees and butterflies.

2. Part of the food web

   • Caterpillars are herbivores on native vines, feeding on leaves of certain members of the grape family (Vitaceae) and related plants.

   • Caterpillars and pupae are prey for birds, wasps, and small mammals.

Photo: Hood Street, Summer 2025

Life Cycle

• Flight period: Typically two broods in much of the U.S. (spring and summer); in the far north, often just one brood. Adults are active daytime through early evening.

• Eggs: Laid singly on host plant leaves.

• Larvae: Large, green or brown caterpillars with a small horn at the rear end (typical of sphinx moths). They feed for ~2–3 weeks before leaving the host plant to pupate.

• Pupation: In loose soil or leaf litter at the base of host plants. Overwinter as pupae in colder climates.

• Generations:

  • North: 1 generation/year.

  • South/Mid-Atlantic: 2–3 generations/year.

Photo: Hood Street, Summer 2025

Native Host Plants (Larval food sources)

The caterpillars feed mainly on members of the grape family. Native options include:

• Wild grape (Vitis riparia, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis vulpina, etc.)

• Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia)

• Peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea) — more common in the Southeast.

Providing native vines instead of ornamental hybrids gives both food for caterpillars and nectar/pollen habitat for other insects.

Photo: Hood Street, Summer 2025

Adult Nectar Sources (Native nectar plants)

Adults feed at flowers with accessible nectar in daylight. In native plant gardens, good options include:

• Phlox paniculata (garden phlox)

• Monarda fistulosa (wild bergamot)

• Penstemon digitalis (foxglove beardtongue)

• Asclepias tuberosa (butterfly milkweed)

• Verbena stricta (hoary vervain)

• Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower)

• Lonicera sempervirens (native honeysuckle)

• Zizia aurea (golden alexanders)

Habitat Tips to Support Amphion floridensis

Photo: Hood Street, Summer 2025

1. Grow native host vines along fences, trellises, or as groundcovers—especially wild grapes and Virginia creeper.

2. Include a mix of nectar plants blooming from late spring into summer to feed adults.

3. Avoid pesticides on host and nectar plants.

4. Leave some leaf litter or loose soil at the base of vines for pupation sites.

5. Plant in sunny or lightly shaded areas, since adults are active in daylight and prefer warm, open spaces.

Anthophora terminalis (orange-tipped wood-digger bee)

Photo: Orange-tipped wood-digger bee, Summer 2025

Ecological role

• Pollinator of deep flowers. With a long tongue and hovering flight, it’s frequently seen working tubular blooms (think beardtongues, bergamots, and lobelias).

• Generalist forager with strong tube preferences. Documented plants include wood-mints (Blephilia spp.), American germander (Teucrium canadense), jewelweed (Impatiens capensis), fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), penstemons (Penstemon spp.), wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa), great blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica), waterleaf (Hydrophyllum appendiculatum), and pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata).

Life cycle & behavior

• Voltinity & timing. Usually univoltine; adults fly mid-summer (North). Overwinters as prepupae in the natal cell.

• Nesting substrates. Females excavate above-ground nests in dead wood and pithy stems (e.g., sumac; also driftwood, logs). Brood cells are partitioned and plugged with chewed wood pulp/sawdust, a hallmark of subgenus Clisodon. Nests may also appear in trap-/bee-hotel holes.

• Entrance sizes (for bee hotels). Successfully used hole diameters are about 6–8 mm (¼–5/16 in.).

Photo: Orange-tipped wood-digger bee found on Anise Hyssop, Summer 2025

Identification quick notes

Compact, fuzzy bee; males often golden-haired with pale face; females show thin pale abdominal hair bands and a sometimes visible orange tip to the abdomen (easiest to glimpse when she’s buried in a tubular flower). Quick, hovering flight.

Best native plants to support it (Chicago-area friendly)

Prioritize native tubular blooms from late spring through late summer, drawing from these documented favorites:

• Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa)

• Beardtongues (Penstemon spp.; incl. P. digitalis)

• Great blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica)

• Wood-mints (Blephilia spp.)

• American germander (Teucrium canadense)

• Jewelweed (Impatiens capensis)

• Waterleaf (Hydrophyllum appendiculatum)

• Pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata, for wet spots)

(For northern/western plantings, additional recorded hosts include Astragalus alpinus and Hedysarum spp., reflecting its broad range.)

Photo: Orange-tipped wood-digger bee found on Anise Hyssop, Summer 2025

Yard/habitat tips

• Leave stems & soft wood. Retain some last year’s hollow/pithy stems (e.g., sumac) at 12–24″ height and stash short pieces of soft, weathered wood in a sunny, sheltered spot. This species can also use bee-hotel blocks with 6–8 mm holes; don’t use plastic; keep blocks dry.

• Stage bloom. Combine early- to late-season tubular natives so there’s constant nectar/pollen during June–August flight.

• Skip pesticides. As with all solitary bees, avoid insecticides on or near blooms. (General best practice for conserving native bees.)

• Expect low-key numbers. Often present but not in big swarms; individuals zip between flowers and perches.

Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus (four-banded sand wasp / “stink bug hunter”)

Photo: Stink Bug Hunter, Hood Street, August 2025

Snapshot

• What it is: A native, solitary sand wasp that hunts true bugs—especially stink bugs—and nests in loose, sunny sand. Great garden ally.

• Range: Broadly across eastern North America (into CO/WY on the west side of its range).

• When you’ll see adults (Chicago & other northern areas): roughly mid-June/July through September.

Ecological role

• Predator of crop/garden pests: Females paralyze and stock their nests with nymphs/adults of Pentatomidae (stink bugs), plus some Scutelleridae, Reduviidae, and Coreidae—including the invasive brown marmorated stink bug. This makes them valuable natural biocontrol.

• Pollinator: Adults drink nectar at a variety of native wildflowers; while feeding, they move pollen around.

Life cycle & behavior

• Nesting: Solitary ground-nester in bare or sparsely vegetated, loose sand—beaches, old dunes, sand prairies, sandy paths, etc. Females often form loose aggregations where the substrate is ideal. Burrows can be ~12″ deep with 1–3 cells.

• Hunting & provisioning: A female captures several true bugs, carries each back clutched in her mid-legs, re-opens the burrow, and mass-provisions each cell with about 4–14 prey before laying an egg and sealing it.

• Generations: Typically one generation per year (univoltine) in the north; longer activity window in the south.

• Natural enemies: Kleptoparasitic flies may follow females into nests and lay eggs on the stored prey, which can rob the wasp larva of its food.

Identification quickies

Medium-sized black wasp with four pale bands on the abdomen (males may look a bit different), yellowish legs; often seen zipping over sand or tanking up on nectar.

Best native plants to support it (Chicago ecoregion friendly)

These are known nectar plants used by B. quadrifasciatus (grow a mix to cover bloom from mid-summer into fall):

• Mountain mints (Pycnanthemum spp.)

• Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum)

• Rattlesnake master (Eryngium yuccifolium)

• Indian/pale Indian plantain (Arnoglossum spp.)

• White prairie clover (Dalea candida)

• Goldenrods (Solidago spp.)

• Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia spp.)

Habitat tips (what to do in your yard)

• Leave a sunny sand patch: Maintain a bare, well-drained sandy area (even a 2–4 ft² spot works) with minimal foot traffic for nest sites. Don’t constantly water or mulch it.

• Plant the nectar list above near that patch so females can refuel between hunts.

• Avoid insecticides, especially during bloom; these wasps are sensitive and you don’t want to poison their prey pipeline. (General best practice reinforced by their role as beneficials.)

• Expect company: Where conditions are perfect, you may see small colonies of individual nests—normal, and usually gentle if left alone.

Melanoplus

🌱 Genus Overview & Ecological Role

Melanoplus is a large North American genus of spur‑throated grasshoppers, notable for species like M. femurrubrum (red‑legged), M. differentialis (differential), M. bivittatus (two‑striped), M. sanguinipes (migratory), and the extinct M. spretus (Rocky Mountain locust) apirs.plants.ifas.ufl.edu+15Wikipedia+15ResearchGate+15.

Though some species are agricultural pests, they serve critical ecological functions:

• As food sources, their eggs, nymphs, and adults feed a variety of wildlife—birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and predatory or parasitic insects like ground beetles, robber flies, bee flies, and thread-waisted wasps Animal Diversity Web.

• They contribute to biotic resistance by feeding on invasive exotic grasses, thereby helping native plant communities resist invasions Wikipedia+15Department of Entomology+15ResearchGate+15.

• At moderate densities, nutrient cycling is enhanced—grasshopper droppings and plant litter accelerate decomposition and soil nutrient turnover.

🐛 Life Cycle & Biology

Melanoplus femurrubrum (Red‑Legged Grasshopper)

• Univoltine (one generation per year), though multiple generations may occur in warmer southern regions DigitalCommons@UNL+10Wikipedia+10Wikipedia+10.

• Eggs are laid in autumn, buried ≈2 cm into soil, enter diapause over winter.

• In spring, warming soil triggers hatching; nymphs molt 5–7 times before adulthood, which emerges in early to mid‑summer.

• Diet: a broad mix of grasses, forbs, shrubs; consumption patterns shift based on temperature and presence of predators Department of Entomology+15Wikipedia+15Wikipedia+15.

Melanoplus differentialis (Differential Grasshopper)

• One generation/year.

• Females lay multiple egg masses containing dozens of eggs each in soft soil in late fall; eggs enter diapause and hatch synchronously over ~2 weeks in early summer Wikipedia+2Animal Diversity Web+2.

• After ~32 days of nymphal instars, mature adults appear; adults present July–October.

• Polyphagous, but grow faster on forbs—especially giant ragweed, common sunflower, prickly lettuce, and related composites Wikipedia+3Animal Diversity Web+3Government of Canada+3ResearchGate+3Wikipedia+3Animal Diversity Web+3.

• Predators include birds, beetles, flies, and parasitoid insects Animal Diversity Web.

Melanoplus bivittatus (Two‑Striped Grasshopper)

• Eggs overwinter and hatch in spring; nymphs pass through five instars Wikipedia+15Wikipedia+15Wikipedia+15.

• Adults may migrate in bands; active in tallgrass prairies, meadows, crop edges and roadsides.

• Diet is highly polyphagous: preferred on forbs (mustards, ragweed, dandelion, prickly lettuce, alfalfa, clover, chicory, arrowleaf butterbur, greenflower) rather than grasses; mixed diets enhance growth and survival idtools.org+2Wikipedia+2.

Melanoplus sanguinipes (Migratory Grasshopper)

• One major generation annually.

• Thrives in disturbed agricultural landscapes, weed-dominated idle fields, sandy soils for egg-laying Wikipedia.

• Feeds on a variety of forbs and grasses; outbreaks damage crops including cereals, legumes, vegetables, and ornamentals ARS.

🌼 Native Host Plants to Support Melanoplus Species

To support populations of native Melanoplus, planting a diverse mix of native forbs and grasses favored by them is key. Based on species preferences and nutritional benefits:

Recommended Native Forbs

• Giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida)

• Common sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

• Prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola)

• Dandelion, chicory, broadleaf plantain, arrowleaf butterbur, greenflower (Asteraceae family)

• Mustards and other Brassicaceae species

These plants support faster growth and survival in M. differentialis and M. bivittatus nymphs Government of Canada+13idtools.org+13Wikipedia+13Wikipedia+1.

Recommended Native Grasses (but secondary to forbs)

• Native prairie grasses such as big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem, Indian grass, and side-oats grama—early-season hosts and potential invasion resistance feeders by M. femurrubrum ResearchGate+1.

Native Shrubs & Specials

• Melanoplus aridus has been observed feeding on Flourensia cernua in desert shrublands Wikipedia+2Wikipedia+2.

• Local species like saltbushes (Atriplex spp.) support species such as M. lakinus in arid regions idtools.org.

🧭 Summary & Recommendations

Ecological contributions:

• Serve as prey for many wildlife species.

• Help control invasive grasses via biotic resistance.

• Support nutrient cycling through herbivory and waste deposition.

Life cycle basics:

• Egg → nymph (5–7 molts) → adult.

• Eggs overwinter in soil; synchronized hatching in spring.

• Adults appear in mid-to-late summer; most species have one generation per year.

Supporting native populations:

Plant a diverse native forb-rich habitat, including:

• Giant ragweed, sunflowers, prickly lettuce, dandelions, chicories, plantains

• Native prairie grasses for early growth and diet diversity

• Native local shrubs where relevant to regional Melanoplus species

Maintaining weed patches and diverse edges, rather than herbicide-only sterile lawns, will sustain habitat complexity Melanoplus thrive in.

Veronicastrum virginicum (Culver’s root)

🌱 Basics & Natural Habitat

• Veronicastrum virginicum is a North American native perennial in the Plantaginaceae family, commonly called Culver’s root.

• It ranges across much of eastern United States and southeastern Canada, including prairie and moist meadow ecosystems such as prairies, open woodlands, and stream banks.

• The plant typically reaches 3–5 ft (up to 200 cm) tall, with narrow whorled leaves and showy, candle‑like racemes of small tubular flowers that bloom from June through August (bottom to top).

🌿 Ecological Value & Wildlife Support

Pollinators

• Culver’s root is a magnet for a broad community of pollinators—long‑ and short‑tongued bees (like bumblebees, honeybees, masked and metallic bees), syrphid flies, butterflies (e.g., Eastern Tailed Blue, Azure, Red Admiral), moths, wasps, and beetles—feeding on its abundant nectar and pollen over a month-long bloom period.

• Charles Robertson documented as many as 43 species of bees visiting Culver’s root.

Lepidopteran Host

• It serves as a larval host plant for the Culver’s root borer moth, whose caterpillars feed on its roots and stems.

• Additionally noted as a host plant for the Buckeye butterfly in some sources.

Other Wildlife

• Bees and insects visiting flowers also attract insectivorous birds; seed capsules and the insects themselves provide food or habitat for wildlife in meadow settings.

• The plant’s foliage is largely avoided by deer and rabbits—a valuable trait for wildlife‑friendly gardens.

🧭 Growing Conditions & Plant Care

Site & Soil

• Ideal in full sun to light shade; may lean or require staking in deeper shade.

• Prefers moist, well‑drained soil, tolerating anything from medium‑moist to wet conditions; well-suited for rain gardens or low spots .

• Soil can range from sandy to clay loam, slightly acidic to neutral.

Maintenance & Growth Habit

• Grows in erect clumps, spreading slowly via rhizomes; not invasive but may benefit from thinning every few years.

• Pest‑resistant overall; deer and rabbits seldom damage it. Occasionally affected by Culver’s root borer, aphids, beetles or leafhoppers—but disease is rare.

• Can be pinched in late May to control height or encourage compact growth. Deadheading spent blooms may encourage a late-season bloom.

🌾 Growing from Seed

Seed Characteristics

• Seeds are very tiny and produced in small capsules; each capsule holds many seeds.

• They may self-sow lightly in favorable conditions.

Germination Tips

• Most protocols recommend surface sowing, because light exposure is required to break seed dormancy—even for small seeds.

• Cold stratification (i.e. refrigerating seed for 4–12 weeks) or winter sowing is strongly recommended; many users report better germination when seed is fresh and refrigerated.

• Keep soil consistently moist, especially in early stages. Best germination occurs in cool, sheltered conditions like early morning misting and partial shade.

Propagation Alternatives

• Division is the simplest way to expand established clumps; best done every 3–5 years in early spring or late fall.

• Stem cuttings or basal shoot propagation is possible in spring but slower to flower.

🌼 Ecological & Landscape Applications

• Its long bloom time fills a pollinator gap between spring-flowering and summer-blooming plants.

• Excellent in pollinator gardens, meadows, rain gardens, or prairie restorations, often paired with asters, bee balm, cardinal flower, coneflower, goldenrods, Liatris, Joe-Pye Weed, and native grasses.

• Adds vertical structure and textural contrast with its tall floral spikes and whorled leaves, creating architectural interest in borders or native plantings.

🌱 Tips for supporting wildlife with Culver's root

• Start plants from freshly stratified seed or nursery divisions to ensure strong establishment.

• Plant in clusters or drifts to make floral resources efficient for bees.

• Retain seed heads through fall and winter, which provide habitat or food for insects and birds.

• Combine with other native nectar-bearing species for a continuous blooming sequence and diverse pollinator habitat.

Culver’s root is a cornerstone plant for native pollinator support, offering beautiful structural interest and ecological benefit with low maintenance.

Rebecca McMackin, Biodiversity for the Masses: Ecological Horticulture in the Anthropocene

Lygaeus turcicus (false milkweed bug)

Identity & Distribution

• A North American seed bug in the family Lygaeidae, found mostly in eastern U.S. and parts of Canada.

• Often mistaken for other orange-and-black Lygaeus species (e.g. L. kalmii), but distinguishable by its overlapping black triangle patterns on its wings and a Y‑ or T‑shaped orange mark on the head.

🔍 Ecological Role

• Feeds almost exclusively on the achenes (seeds) of plants in the aster family—specifically false sunflower (Heliopsis helianthoides), also known as oxeye.

• Though its common name references milkweed, it does not feed on milkweed; the name is a misnomer.

• The species may serve as a mimic of true milkweed bugs: while Lygaeus turcicus isn’t known to sequester toxins, its bright coloration likely provides protective aposematic signaling to predators.

♻️ Lifecycle & Behavior

1. Egg-laying: Females lay clusters of ~15–50 eggs on the undersides of leaves of host plants, likely Heliopsis.

2. Nymphal stages: Upon hatching, bright red nymphs feed gregariously on developing seeds. They undergo several molts (incomplete metamorphosis), looking like miniature adults at each stage.

3. Adult stage: Adults emerge in late spring or early summer and can live about two months; both nymphs and adults are typically found on host flowers from June through August.

4. Generations: Generally one generation per year, with adults overwintering and re-emerging the following spring.

5. 🌿 Best Native Host Plants

• Heliopsis helianthoides (false sunflower / oxeye sunflower) is the primary and most reliable host plant, where L. turcicus typically congregates to feed and breed.

• While laboratory records suggest they can feed on seeds of other Asteraceae species, observational and ecological records strongly indicate that Heliopsis helianthoides is the optimal native plant to support them. The Prairie Ecologist

🌼 Supporting This Species in Your Garden

To foster Lygaeus turcicus populations:

• Plant clusters of native false sunflowers (Heliopsis helianthoides) in sunny, open areas.

• Allow plants to reach seed stage—bugs feed on achenes in maturing flowerheads, so letting stalks persist through mid to late summer is ideal.

• Avoid removing seedheads too early; instead, leave them until nymphs and adults have had time to feed and lay eggs.

By focusing on planting and maintaining patches of native Heliopsis helianthoides, you’ll support the lifecycle of this striking and specialized seed bug. Its presence signals healthy native plant–insect interactions and adds ecological diversity to native gardens. Let me know if you'd like tips on sourcing or planting Heliopsis, or supporting related seed-feeding insect species!

Papilio polyxenes (black swallowtail )

Taxonomy & Description

• Scientific name: Papilio polyxenes

• Common names: Black swallowtail, American swallowtail

• Family: Papilionidae

• Range: Widely distributed across North America, from southern Canada through the United States and into parts of Central and South America.

• Habitat: Open fields, prairies, meadows, roadsides, gardens, and edges of woodlands.

Ecological Role

Pollination

• Adults are generalist nectar feeders and pollinate a wide variety of native and garden flowers.

• They are especially attracted to composite flowers (Asteraceae), milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), and mints (Lamiaceae).

Food Web Contribution

• Larvae: Serve as prey for birds, spiders, wasps, and tachinid flies.

• Adults: Provide food for insectivorous birds and other predators.

• Their presence indicates healthy populations of native umbelliferous (Apiaceae) plants.

Lifecycle

1. Egg Stage (3–9 days)

   • Eggs are laid singly on host plant leaves.

   • Initially pale yellow, darken before hatching.

2. Larval Stage (Caterpillar)

   • Instars: 5 stages; early instars resemble bird droppings (brown/white) for camouflage; later instars are bright green with black bands and yellow spots.

   • Duration: ~10–30 days depending on temperature.

   • Defense: Osmeterium (orange, forked gland) emits foul odor to deter predators.

3. Pupal Stage (Chrysalis)

   • Pupates on stems or nearby vegetation.

   • Two color morphs: green or brown (camouflage to environment).

   • Overwintering occurs in this stage in northern climates.

4. Adult Stage

   • Wingspan: 3–4.5 inches.

   • Flight period: Spring to fall; multiple broods in warmer regions.

   • Adults live 2–3 weeks, seeking nectar and mates.

Native Host Plants

Black swallowtail caterpillars specialize on plants in the Apiaceae (carrot/parsley family) and occasionally Rutaceae (citrus family). Native hosts are essential for supporting wild populations.

Key Native Host Plants (Central & Eastern North America)

• Golden Alexander (Zizia aurea) – One of the most important native larval hosts.

• Heart-leaved Alexander (Zizia aptera)

• Meadow Parsnip (Thaspium trifoliatum)

• Mock Bishop’s Weed (Ptilimnium capillaceum)

• Water Parsnip (Sium suave)

• Common Cow Parsnip (Heracleum maximum)

• Angelica (Angelica atropurpurea)

Additional Native or Naturalized Hosts

• Wild carrot/Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota) – naturalized, not native but widely used.

• Fennel, dill, parsley – common garden plants that can supplement but do not replace natives.

Nectar Plants for Adults

Planting a mix of native nectar plants ensures adults have resources throughout the season:

• Milkweeds (Asclepias spp.)

• Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

• Bee balm (Monarda fistulosa)

• Blazing stars (Liatris spp.)

• Asters (Symphyotrichum spp.)

• Joe-Pye weed (Eutrochium spp.)

Conservation & Garden Support

• Plant multiple native host plants in clumps to help larvae find food.

• Avoid pesticide use; larvae are highly susceptible to insecticides.

• Provide sunny areas with shelter from wind.

• Include nectar plants that bloom spring through fall for adults.

• Overwintering pupae can be left undisturbed in garden debris or stems.

Ecological Significance

• Acts as a keystone pollinator in mixed meadow and prairie ecosystems.

• Supports predator and parasitoid diversity.

• Its reliance on native Apiaceae plants makes it an indicator species for the health of prairie and open meadow habitats.

1. Planting Plan (Chicago Region, Native-Focused)

Goals

• Provide host plants (larval food) and nectar plants (adult food) throughout the growing season.

• Mimic natural prairie/meadow edges to support black swallowtails and other pollinators.

• Use native species from Chicago’s ecoregion (Central Tallgrass Prairie) for ecological integrity.

A. Host Plants (Larval Food)

Black swallowtail caterpillars rely primarily on native members of the Apiaceae (carrot family):

Core Larval Hosts (must-haves)

• Golden Alexander (Zizia aurea)

  • Blooms: May–June

  • Early-season host; cornerstone for native gardens.

• Heart-leaved Alexander (Zizia aptera)

  • Blooms: May–June

  • Thrives in part shade; complements Z. aurea.

• Meadow Parsnip (Thaspium trifoliatum)

  • Blooms: May–June

  • Adds diversity; prefers open woodland edges.

• Cow Parsnip (Heracleum maximum)

  • Blooms: June–July

  • Large plant; great for wetter spots.

Optional Native Hosts

• Angelica (Angelica atropurpurea)

• Water Parsnip (Sium suave)

B. Nectar Plants (Adult Food)

Choose plants with overlapping bloom times (spring–fall):

Spring (March–May)

• Wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis)

• Golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) – doubles as host & nectar

• Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum)

Summer (June–August)

• Bee balm (Monarda fistulosa)

• Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

• Blazing stars (Liatris spicata, L. aspera)

• Milkweeds (Asclepias tuberosa, A. syriaca)

Fall (August–October)

• New England aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae)

• Smooth blue aster (Symphyotrichum laeve)

• Goldenrods (Solidago speciosa, S. rigida)

C. Planting Design Tips

• Sunny location: 6+ hours sunlight daily.

• Group in clumps: 3–5 of each species to make finding plants easier for butterflies.

• Layer heights: Tall nectar plants (asters, joe-pye) at back; medium (coneflowers, bee balm) mid; low (golden alexander) front.

• Watering: Most natives tolerate drought once established; cow parsnip & water parsnip need moist soils.

• Avoid pesticides: Even “organic” sprays harm larvae.

Example 10' x 10' Butterfly Patch

• Host layer (center & edges): 3 Zizia aurea, 2 Thaspium trifoliatum

• Nectar spring: 3 Aquilegia canadensis

• Nectar summer: 4 Monarda fistulosa, 3 Echinacea purpurea, 2 Liatris spicata

• Nectar fall: 3 Symphyotrichum novae-angliae, 3 Solidago speciosa

2. Life Cycle & Flight Period (Illinois / Great Lakes)

Black swallowtails are multi-brooded in the Midwest, with timing influenced by temperature.

Spring (April–June)

• Overwintered chrysalides emerge in April/May.

• Adults seek early nectar (columbine, golden alexander).

• Egg laying begins mid-May on early host plants (Zizia spp.).

Summer (June–August)

• 2nd and 3rd generations common.

• Eggs hatch within 3–9 days; caterpillars feed for ~2–4 weeks.

• Pupae form on nearby vegetation; some emerge in ~2 weeks (summer brood), others overwinter (late brood).

Fall (September–October)

• Last adults seen late September into early October.

• Late-season caterpillars pupate and overwinter as chrysalides.

Overwintering (November–March)

• Chrysalides remain dormant, often camouflaged on stems or garden debris.

• Leaving standing stalks and leaf litter through winter is critical for survival.

Chicago Flight Period Summary

• First Adults: Mid-April

• Peak Activity: June–August

• Last Adults: Early October

• Broods per year: 2–3

Extra Conservation Tips

• Plant continuous blooms March–October.

• Include moisture sources (shallow dish with pebbles for puddling).

• Leave seed heads and stems standing until spring cleanup.

• Intermix host and nectar plants for easy access.

• Combine with other butterfly hosts (milkweeds for monarchs, violets for fritillaries) for broader habitat value.